One might think that baby shoes are a cute accessory, but they are actually not needed for infants who are not yet walking. Socks are sufficient to keep their feet warm. It is beneficial for babies to walk barefoot indoors to help strengthen their muscles and tendons.

When to Consider Buying Baby Shoes

Parents should wait until their baby shows signs of wanting to walk before purchasing shoes. The age at which babies may need shoes varies as each child develops differently. Walking barefoot indoors can help enhance muscle strength, balance, posture, and coordination. Non-skid socks or booties can be used to prevent slipping.

The Impact of Shoes on Walking Development

Sturdy shoes can impede a baby’s walking progress. Pediatricians suggest that babies walk barefoot in a safe environment to help build up their feet. Babies typically go through walking milestones from crawling to walking between 6 to 18 months. Should a baby show a different progress, consultation with a healthcare provider is recommended.

Choosing the Right Shoes for Your Baby

It is advisable for babies to wear shoes outdoors while being barefoot indoors. Parents should opt for lightweight, flexible, properly fitting shoes with non-skid soles. Considering their rapid growth, the cost of shoes should be taken into account. When picking out baby shoes, functionality should take precedence over style.

Support for Emma Sumner and Elisabeth L Hill was provided by The Leverhulme Trust.

Child Development Milestones and Future Outcomes

Early developmental milestones in children can be indicators of their future cognitive abilities. While motor and language skills may hint at later cognitive skills, there is no definite proof that early achievers will consistently perform better later in life. Motor milestones could indirectly impact cognitive abilities through learning opportunities.

Variability in Basic Motor Milestones Across Children

Children progress at their own pace with basic motor milestones, and late bloomers often catch up with those who developed earlier. Comparing a child’s development to normative standards may not accurately predict their future success. More research is necessary to comprehend the association between early milestones and future achievements.

Different Rates of Development in Children

Children develop at varying rates, and those who achieve milestones later can still reach the same levels as their peers. Late speech development does not always indicate future language challenges. Family history might be a better predictor of persistent issues. A comprehensive study of a large group of children from birth could offer more insights into the significance of early milestones.

Our current knowledge may not reassure all parents, but further research could yield targeted guidance, support, and intervention for children who would benefit the most from immediate assistance, leading to lasting positive impacts on their lives.

Received on: 2006 December 11; Revised on: 2007 January 30; Accepted on: 2007 February 9; Issue date: 2007 August.

Reproduction of this article is permitted under the Creative Commons Deed, Attribution 2.5, excluding commercial use.

The Relationship Between Milestones and Future Cognitive Performance

Child Development Data Collection and Analysis

Developmental delays are linked to later diagnoses of learning disabilities. The association between the age of reaching infant milestones and future intellectual performance within the general population remains inconclusive. The hypothesis is that achieving milestones earlier is correlated with improved long-term intellectual performance across various domains, not just extreme cases.

Cohort Study on Child Development and Cognitive Performance

This study involved a representative sample of 5,362 children born in the UK in 1946. Data on intellectual function and education were collected at ages 8, 26, and 53. Statistical analysis was carried out to explore the impact of milestone age on cognition and educational outcomes.

Impact of Milestones on Intellectual Performance Over Time

The age at which milestones were achieved was associated with intellectual performance at ages 8, 26, and 53. Each month earlier a child learned to stand corresponded to a half-point increase in IQ at age 8. Speech development influenced later education outcomes, with delayed developers being less likely to progress, though this effect did not extend to motor skills. While effects diminished when excluding the slowest developers, many remained significant.

Link Between Delayed Development and Intellectual Function

Delayed development is connected to lower future intellectual functioning, indicating potential issues with cortical-subcortical connectivity. Individuals with significantly delayed milestones are at higher risk of learning disabilities. This study aimed to fill the gap in knowledge regarding the relationship between milestone age and later intellectual performance in the general population.

The mechanisms underlying the relationship between infant motor skills and adult cognition are not well understood. Efficient neural systems that develop during motor milestones could shape future cognitive processes, although questions related to specificity and associations remain. The research aimed to address these questions using data from a large UK birth cohort.

Study Participants and Data Collection

Research Group and Cohort Information

Participants from the MRC National Survey of Health and Development, comprising 5,362 individuals born in the UK in 1946, were included. Data on development and cognitive function were assessed at various points in time, representing the UK post-World War II population.

Data Collection and Analysis Procedures

At age 2, milestone ages (standing, walking, speech, teething) were reported by mothers. Cognitive assessments were conducted at different ages. Statistical models were used to investigate the associations between development and cognition, accounting for various factors.

Regression Models and Data Analysis

Regression models were utilized to analyze the relationship between cognitive function and development, while adjusting for confounding variables. Even after excluding the slowest developers and individuals with lower IQ scores, significant effects were observed. The study explored the linearity of the association between development and cognition.

Further analyses examined how changes in cognitive function with developmental precocity varied, while adjusting for IQ at earlier ages. The impact of development on education was also explored using logistic regression models, considering similar factors as in the cognitive function analyses.

Association Between Development and Cognitive Measures

Analyzing Cognitive Scores and Developmental Variables

Cognitive scores were available for 4,709 subjects, with 3,969 having data on developmental variables and being included in the analysis. Subjects with missing data scored higher in reading comprehension and verbal fluency compared to those with complete information.

Effect of Infant Motor and Speech Development on Cognitive Function: Linear Analysis

Linear models demonstrated that earlier motor and speech development correlated with higher IQ at age 8, superior reading comprehension at age 26, and improved verbal fluency at age 53. The regression coefficients indicated small effects, such as a minor increase in IQ for every month earlier a child learned to stand.

Table 1.

The results of Regression Analyses showed significant associations between childhood IQ, reading comprehension at age 26, and verbal fluency at age 53 with developmental variables.

Fig. 1.

There was a relationship between Intelligence Quotient at age 8 with the age of learning to stand in the sample, as determined by linear regression analysis.

Limiting Analyses to the Reference Range of Development and Intelligence Quotient

Exploring the associations between development and cognition, after excluding the slowest developers and individuals with lower IQ scores, revealed persistent significant associations. Particularly strong links were found between speech development and reading comprehension at age 26 and verbal fluency at age 53.

Table 2.

Regression Analyses were repeated for “Normal Developers,” showing consistent relationships between childhood IQ, reading comprehension at 26, and verbal fluency at 53 with developmental variables.

Fig. 2.

The Intelligence Quotient at age 8 was examined in relation to the age of learning to stand within the reference range using linear regression analysis.

Effect of Infant Motor and Speech Development on Cognitive Function: Quadratic Models

Quadratic regression analysis demonstrated significant nonlinear relationships between cognitive outcomes and developmental variables for the entire range of development. No significant quadratic relationships were identified within the reference range of development and normal IQ for standing and IQ at age 8.

Table 3.

Quadratic Regression Analyses revealed significant associations between childhood IQ, reading comprehension at 26, and verbal fluency at 53 with developmental variables.

Fig. 3.

The Intelligence Quotient at age 8 was examined regarding the age of learning to stand using quadratic regression.

Table 4.

Quadratic Regression Analyses for “Normal Developers” indicated no significant quadratic relationships between standing and IQ at age 8, but significant associations with other cognitive measures.

Impact of Development on Changes in IQ after Age 8

The relationships between developmental data and cognitive measures after age 8 were dependent on earlier associations with IQ at 8. Remarkably, significant links remained for some cognitive measures even after adjusting for IQ at age 8.

Relationship Between Development and Educational Attainment

In this cohort, educational achievement was linked to speech development, where individuals with delayed development were less likely to progress to higher education levels. However, this effect decreased when considering IQ at age 8.

Conclusion

Infant development significantly influences general intellectual functioning in the overall population, even within the normal range of development. Previous research supports these findings, emphasizing the critical role of early development in shaping later cognitive abilities.

There is a scarcity of research focused on how variations in development impact cognitive abilities on a population level, but existing studies align with our discoveries.

Our research indicates that the connection between infant development and future cognitive function also encompasses speech development, not just motor skills. Within our study group, speech development had a more lasting influence on reading comprehension at age 26 compared to motor development. The rapid development of speech was associated with better reading comprehension, even among those who did not reach developmental milestones on time. On the contrary, the impact of motor development on reading comprehension decreased when focusing on average developmental progress.

What explains the stronger impact of speech development timing in adulthood on reading comprehension compared to motor development timing? The language skills at 25 months are linked to increased growth in expressive vocabulary, highlighting the close relationship with speech development. Our findings could be attributed to the specific cognitive assessments performed at age 26 and the consistency in performance over time. Since our evaluation was limited to reading comprehension, we cannot generalize these results to overall intellectual abilities.

We had previously theorized that there are common neural mechanisms that underlie both motor and cognitive functions during different stages of development. The early maturation of neural circuits to achieve developmental milestones may pave the way for the complex circuit development necessary for advanced cognitive functions later in life. Early functional connectivity in the brain might enhance motor skills and boost cognitive functions in childhood and adulthood. Recent evidence supports this theory by establishing a connection between adult brain volume and infant motor skills.

Infant motor and speech development rely on fundamental psychological processes such as response selection, adaptation, and categorization, which are pivotal for executive cognitive functions in adulthood. Development progress at age 53 is more strongly associated with verbal fluency than general intellectual abilities. We observed a correlation between developmental milestones and general intellectual capacity at age 8. IQ and executive function are interlinked, as both are regulated by the lateral frontal cortex.

This research partly validates earlier findings suggesting that infant development has a lasting impact on future educational achievements. In our study group, speech development, rather than motor development, showed a robust association. Discrepancies in development and educational opportunities could account for the differences between the 1946 UK and 1966 Finnish cohorts. It seems that early speech development might play a more significant role in later educational success compared to motor skills.

Our study involved a representative sample of individuals born in Britain in 1946, minimizing potential biases. While the developmental data originated from maternal interviews, the contemporaneous design of the study enhances its accuracy. The long-term associations between infant development and health outcomes underscore the importance of comprehending normal neural, motor, and cognitive development.

Acknowledgments

The National Survey of Health and Development was financially supported by the UK Medical Research Council. G.K.M. received funding from a UK Department of Health Research Capacity Development Award. The study was conducted at the University of Cambridge Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, with funding from the Medical Research Council, the Wellcome Trust, and the MRC National Survey of Health and Development.

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This content was published by Wiley in the Annals of Neurology.